In-Progress: (Updated January 16, 2012)
Comments, corrections welcome — Adminstrator @
Molokane.org.
After a century of misuse, the Russian term Molokan*
now has two different meanings — (1) a religion and (2) an
ethnic group.**
The ethnic group definition arose in the United States
immediately upon immigration among Pryguny who were
presented as Molokane but
were afraid and ashamed to be known as Pryguny or “Jumpers”
in English, or by any other term except “Molokan,” though
their religion was not Molokan.
After 1928, American Pryguny
converted to Dukh-i-zhizniki
and exported their ritual books and hijacked
“Molokan” identity to the Soviet Union, while 90%
abandoned their faiths in the U.S. In the Former Soviet
Union most Dukh-i-zhizniki
presented themselves as a non-Russian
nationality*** of Molokans, not of the Molokan faith.
* Proper transliteration
from Russian (ìîëîêàí - ìîëîêàíå) into English : Molokan (sing.) - Molokane (pl.);
pronounced : MA-lo-kan (MA-lo-kan-e). Mis-spelling
variations in English (19 count): Malacan, Malakane,
Malakani, Malakany, Malakanys, Malokan, Molicans,
Moliken, Molkans, Mollakane, Mollican, Mollikan,
Molliken, Molocan, Molochan, Molokanas, Molokanis,
Molokanist, Molokano, ... Other languages have variant
spellings, like Turkish : Malakan, Malakanlar (plural);
Spanish (Mexico) Molakanos (plural).
|
Russian / English
|
Singular
|
ìîëîêàí
Molokan
|
ïðûãóí
Prygun
|
äóõ-è-æèçíèê
Dukh-i-zhiznik
|
Plural
|
ìîëîêàíå
Molokane
|
ïðûãóíû
Pryguny
|
äóõ-è-æèçíèêè
Dukh-i-zhizniki
|
** “Confusion as to the nature of ethnicity often
results from the lack of an adequate typology
of ethnic groups and identities.” — Definitions
And Dimensions Of Ethnicity, The Encyclopedia of
Canada's Peoples, by Wsevolod W. Isajiw, on
Multicultural Canada.
*** By historic definition, all Russians should be
Orthodox by faith. For an ethnic Russian to abandon the
Orthodox faith is considered by most as equivalent to
abandoning one's Russian nationality. A similar attitude
applies to drinking vodka — real Russians drink vodka —
to refuse is an insult.
The following is a simple empirical
classification system for ethnic Molokans, with
comparisons to other systems (in-progress).
3 Ethnic
Molokan Religious Groups
Over 250 ethno-religious
congregations of Russian sectarians, Spiritual
Christians, around the world today that may be
self-labeled as Molokan
are actually of 3 different religious groups — 2 denominations
of Molokane and Pryguny;
and a diverse denominational
family of Dukh-i-zhizniki. These Spiritual Christian,
Russian sectarian, religious groups are easily
distinguished by their liturgy
— songs, holidays,
books, and rituals.
FAITH
|
SONGS
|
HOLIDAYS
|
PROPHETS |
COMMUNION |
Bible
|
Borrowed*
|
Dukh i zhizn'
|
Christ's |
God's |
Yes
|
No
|
Open
|
Closed
|
Molokan
|
X
|
-**
|
-
|
X
|
-
|
|
X
|
X
|
|
Prygun
|
X
|
X
|
-
|
X
|
X |
X
|
|
|
X
|
Dukh-i-zhinik
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
-
|
X
|
X
|
|
|
X
|
*
Most adapted from Russian folk songs and borrowed
from German Protestants.
** After services at weddings, funerals, child
dedication, holidays.
This taxonomy
uses the transliterated original labels from Russian
(shown in italics)
because the historic Russian terms have clear, distinct
definitions. Lax translation to English, sometimes
intentional, has altered original Russian meanings. For
example, Spiritual Christians in Tsarist Russia never
called their meeting location a tserkva ( church), a term
only applied to Orthodox Church buildings. Most were not
allowed to have separate prayer buildings, a notable
exception was in Blagoveschensk.
They usually met in the largest houses or, when
possible, a molitvenyi
dom (ìîëèòâåíûé äîì : prayer house, prayer
hall, assembly hall) or obschii dom (îáùèé äîì : community
hall, assembly) for a sobranie
(ñîáðàíèå : meeting, gathering, assembly).
Currently in Ivanovka, Azerbaijan, the term tserkva (öåðêâà :
church) is being used during interviews with young
reporters who typically do not know their Russian
historical terminology. The most significant semantic
translation shift in the U.S. is that the Russian term Molokan is never
translated in a title or legal document as “Milk-Drinker,”
but Prygun is
translated as “Jumper” on legal documents, never using
the Russian term. Since these faiths originated in
Russia, the transliterated Russian terms should be used
exclusively to preserve their original meanings,
especially when the English deviates from the Russian.
In Russia these three groups, and others,
historically called themselves Dukhhovnye khristiane (Äóõîâíûå
õðèñòèàíå : Spiritual Christians) and opposed the
Russian Orthodox Church (ROC, Pravoslanoi, Ïðàâîñëàâíîé — “right worship”). For being
Russian and not Orthodox, these dissenting faiths, when
identified, were ruled by the ROC to be heresies (åðåñåé),
sektanti (cåêòàíòû
: sectarians), and given many labels which described
their deviation. About 100 labels have been used to
describe dissenting sects and schismatics, which totaled
at least 10% of the Russian population. In some areas 80%
of the population opposed the Church and/or State,
particularly on the periphery — new territory, borders
heavily populated by Germans immigrants, sectarians and
schismatics. Often several labels are applied to the same
people, which adds to historic confusion, especially when
the subjects use a different label than their authorities
— for example: Luidi
Bozhe (God's People, People of God), versus Khlysty (Whips,
Flagellants). Some Russian sectarians adopted the ROC
labels self-redefined,
like Dukhhovnye
khristiane-molokane. These 3-word labels were
often shortened to the latter term used by the ROC, like molokane.
Note that Raskol'niki (schismatics,
ðàñêî́ëíèêè) —
Starovery (Old Believers), or Staroobriadtsy (Old Ritualists) —
are also often
called “ sects”
in English but rarely in Russian.
In the late 1800s, Western journalists often used “sect”
refer to a particular religion, like Russian Orthodox or
Mormon. Some reporters today confuse Molokane with Old
Believers, probably thinking the term means “old faith.”
For a comprehensive overview of Russian sectarian
history see: A.I. Klibanov, History
of Religious Sectarianism in Russia (1860s-1917).
Unlike those who
document them, practicing Molokane and Pryguny in Russia and San Francisco,
California. never confused their own identity. Historic
records indicate that confusion about who or what is Molokan began in the
U.S. immediately upon immigration (1904-1905) to Los
Angeles, California, of relatively small numbers (less
than 1%) of these Russian sectarians. One of the leaders
of the U.S. migration, I.G. Samarin,
may have been a Molokan by faith, yet assisted other
sectarians, notably Dukhoborsty
and Pryguny;
and in America he was asked to coordinate publishing the Dukh-i-zhinik ritual
books.
In Russia and among themselves, these opposing factions of
mystical sectarian immigrants in Los Angeles were
variously labeled as Davidisty,
Dukhoborstsy, Iconobortsy, Ierusalim, Judaizers, Khlysty, Lyudi bozhii, Maksimisty, Molokane, Novyi Izrail',
Pryguny, Russian
Quakers, Stundists, Syny Svobodnye, Svobodniki. Subbotniki, Tolstoyans, Zionisty, etc.
Individuals could claim or be assigned multiple labels.
Except for the term
Molokane, each of these Russian labels in America
could easily suggest they were a mystical Russian sect, or
be confused with Jews, the holiness
movement, or queer (abnormal) apostolic religions in
North America called “Holy
Jumpers.”
In April 1904, months before Pryguny arrived in numbers in Los
Angeles, American “Holy Jumpers” at the Gospel Mission,
739 Kohler street, were persecuted by residents and by LA
police. Besides the many complaints by neighbors, one
policeman threatened to dynamite their church, which was
one mile south of the Bethlehem Institutional Church that
hosted the Russian sectarian immigrants. Hostility for
charismatic spiritual jumping religion was on the front
page of major California newspapers. Though the policeman
was reprimanded, the “Holy Jumpers” were evicted from the
church and denied city permits to preach on the street.
The people who soon were to host the incoming Prygun immigrants
were aware of the problem.
Despite this religious discrimination, the variety of
developing and evolving holiness churches in California
provided a somewhat welcoming environment for the Pryguny. In their
first years they were temporarily compared to the
“founding fathers” of America, the “Pilgrims,” for fleeing
oppressive Russian Orthodox to form religious colonies in
the new country. In Los Angeles, many Pryguny attended
local holiness services in churches and tents,
often with Russian translation. Some interfaith visits
occurred. Russians learned that others in the world also
shared their beliefs about manifestations of the Holy
Spirit (baptism, visions, trances, jumping, raising hands,
speaking in tongues), Zion, millennium, faith healing
(casting out demons) and plainness (spartan prayer house
architecture, worship, and dress). But this was not enough
for those who wanted to return home where they had freedom
from mandatory education, freedom from arraigned and
registered marriages, and clusters of rural villages of
relatives with whom they lived for generations near Mt.
Ararat. Most important for Maksimisty was their prophesy to join
Christ on Mt.
Ararat. A fanatic* Maksimist prophet (Afonasy Bezayeff ?)
became alarmed of the mixing of cultures and, while
standing on a pile of lumber at Demen's yard, he declared
(prophesied) that all Pryguny
must close their services to non-believers and stop
contact with the false faiths of the world, yet he never
moved from Los Angeles. [* A review of the behaviors of
Bezayeff and son, as reported by Berokoff and in the
press, suggests mental illness.]
In Los Angeles, the Americanizing Russian sectarian youth
needed a neutral unique identity to facilitate their
assimilation, mediate hostility against strange religions
and foreigners, and prevent deportation as was done to
100s of unwanted poor Russian Jews, Russian Bolsheviks,
and many other immigrants. The term “Molokan” was most desired
its for its neutrality and uniqueness by those who chose
to maintain their ancestral Russian religious dogma even
though they were not Molokan
by faith. They did not translated this term into
“Milk-Drinker,” rather kept the Russian term and changed
its definition.
During their 100 years in America, use of the terms
“Jumper” and Pryguny diminished
rapidly, replaced by Molokan. Hopefully, use of the proper
international term Dukh-i-zhizniki
will increase in the 2000s with education. It is
expected that most diaspora
will initially be reluctant or refuse to officially accept
a label that accurately describes their secret faith.
After nearly a century of imposing upon and being
offensive to Molokane and
Pryguny, users of
the book Dukh i zhizhn' should take ownership
of this label which uniquely defines them. Dukh-i-zhizniki have
no need to hide any longer, except those who remain
indoctrinated with fear.
Which Brand Name: “Molokan” or “Brotherhood of
Spiritual Christians”?
Educated, wealthy aristocrat Russian immigrants already
established in Los Angeles (Demens, de Blumenthals,
Cherbak) who greatly aided their immigrant countrymen, and
the Rev. Dana Bartlett, initially branded all factions of
immigrant Russian sectarians collectively as “Molokane /
Molokans.” These advisers knew American “Holy Jumpers”
were being persecuted in Los Angeles and a policeman
admitted he threatened them with dynamite to chase them
away. This single brand name
greatly simplify representing the diverse Russian
sectarian immigrants to the government and businesses for
colonization as meek, frugal, hard-working, strong,
honest, temperant
(don't drink, smoke, gamble), Christian peasant farmers,
who will become ideal citizens. Neither their
Russian-American advisers nor their American advisers ever
called them “Jumpers” or Pryguny in the press or correspondence,
though many Russian immigrants insisted on that term and other terms for
themselves to show they were not united. The reporters and
land agents were confused.
The people trying to assist the Russians sectarians to
settle in the U.S. had their hands full. Though Pryguny followed some
Jewish traditions, they should not be confused with
Russian Jews. Nor should they be confused with Russian Bolsheviki or
anarchists who were being deported, nor with their
historically related Russian sectarians in Canada who
split from Doukhobors and were protesting nude against the
government and trying to move to the U.S. and Mexico. They
should also not be perceived as a problem sect like the
much discussed Mormons, many of whom already moved to
Mexico for religious freedom. And the ethnic Molokans that
did not assimilate did not want to be confused with
American “Holy Jumpers.”
Companies which invested in large agricultural colonies
for these ethnic Molokans were confounded as to why the
Russian colonists immediately divided into groups and
quarreled, causing the colony to fail before it could
start. In 1906 when “Molokans” split into 3 opposing
groups upon arriving in Hawaii, Demens explained
“Molokans” in Los Angeles were actually divided into 5 or
6 factions of various sizes, from 45 villages. The Molokan
experiment in Hawaii failed within a few months. In 1910
Cherbak organized a meeting of all Russian sectarians on
the Pacific Coast to jointly purchase a ~50 square mile
tract in Central California for all of them to settle on
as many elders wanted. Though they had the money, he
reported 12 leaders confronting him resulting in the
well-funded huge Russian colony never starting.
While
their actual identity was suppressed and censored by those trying
to help them get settled in the US, most of the Los
Angeles factions proposed a more representative common
label in 1905: “Brotherhood
of Spiritual Christians.” This “Brotherhood”
published the Dukh i
zhizhn' and protested draft registration during
World War I. The
notion of “Brotherhood” lasted until the 1930s. A
tug-a-war over the use of Pryguny occurred as the younger
Americanized generation adopted “Molokan,” or abandoned
their faiths, as it they were transformed into the Dukh-i-zhiznik
faiths, which unfortunately lacked a label for about 75
years.
The other Russian sectarians (Molokane, Subbotniki, Armenian Pryguny, etc.) were
marginalized by the most aggressive Maksimisty, and they
assimilated faster. The term Pryguny was typically applied to the
most fanatic Maksimisty,
then nearly vanishes in favor of Molokan and/or Russian Spiritual
Christian, for all factions, and eventually to just
the single term “Molokan.” The Molokan label was desired
because is was unique, simple, and translated as
“milk-drinkers” projecting harmless wholesome Christians.
After 1933, the label “Jumpers” remained in public view on
the front sign of Big
Church (Lorena Street) and on the original first
cemetery sign at 2nd Street and Eastern Ave. Big
Church did not preserve the sign or label after their
front building was demolished about 2000.
At the newer Slauson Ave cemetery,
the Prygun label
only appears in public view in Russian on one sign
(right), omitted in the English translation. The Russian
says: Kladbische
russkikh khristianskikh molokan-dukhovnykh pryunov
= Cemetery of Russian Christian Molokan-Spiritual Jumpers.
Contrary to the sign, this cemetery is recorded with the
State of California as “Russian Molokan Christian
Spiritual Jumpers Cemetery Association, Inc.”
This label camouflage resulted in nearly all practicing diaspora
Dukh-i-zhizniki
descendants being misled to believe they are the “true” Molokane by their
ancestors who immigrated as Pryguny, and hijacked the label Molokan while they
transformed into a faith opposing Molokane, using the
book: Dukh i zhizn'
(Spirit and Life), published in 1928.
Dissenters were outcast or hid. Though journalists and
scholars often documented that these people “called
themselves Pryguny,”
they ironically much more often used the term “Molokan,”
embedding the hijacked label into the U.S. lexicon. This
identity disinformation
was transported to the Soviet Union and Turkey with the
book: Dukh i zhizn' where
it clashed with the registered
religion of Molokane.
Molokan religion
OR Molokan ethnic group?
After a century of misuse, the Russian term “Molokan” has
evolved into two different meanings — in old Russia a religion, and in
American English an ethnic
group and religion. The ethnic term was
transferred back to the Soviet Union and remains in use
now, which is confusing.
- Religion — Russian Molokan (italics)
is the original religion led and/or founded by
Simyon Uklein, labeled about 1765. Nearly all
congregations since 1992 are members of one worldwide
organization headquartered in Stavropol
province,
Russian Federation, with one main U.S.
congregation in San
Fransisco, California and an affiliated
congregation in Sheridan CA.
- Ethnic Group
— American
English Molokan (no
italics) is a diverse ethnic
group of somewhat inter-related descendants of
Russian sectarians who immigrated in the early 1900s
to North and South America as mixed and opposing
faiths of Russian Spiritual Christians and were
collectively mis-labeled beginning in 1904. There is
no one Molokan ethnic faith or religion in English.
The use of this English term is a debated broad
spectrum of religious views. A liberal* use allows any
descendant to say they are “Molokan” though they may
be intermarried, joined another faith, eat pork and
oppose the faith of their ancestors. On the most
conservative* extreme, users of the Dukh i zhizn' only
consider “their” (íàøè : nashi) Molokans to be selected
members of their congregation and closely affiliated
congregations who profess their own group-accepted
beliefs and behaviors. Outsiders and guests are
forbidden (even other Dukh-i-zhizniki). In the diaspora
(not FSU), there are 50,000+ descendants, most in the
U.S. The majority of diaspora who regularly attend sobranie are Dukh-i-zhizniki
by faith, and number less than 2,000. Between these
extreme population definitions, about 5000 households
(~20,000 descendants) were willing to be listed in an
English language unpublished 1985 Molokan Directory, though less
than half are not practicing Dukh-i-zhizniki or Molokane by
faith.
* Isajiw, Wsevolod W. Definitions
And Dimensions Of Ethnicity, in Paul R.
Magocsi (Ed.), The
Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (University
of Toronto Press, 1999), pages 413-418.
3 Faiths
Research about this identity hijack is in-progress. This
is a preliminary summary to facilitate identifying major factors
of each of these three faiths.
- Molokane is Russian for the ROC
heresy “milk-drinkers” (Russian: molokane, ìîëîêàíå;
from moloko =
“milk”), first named in the 1760s in central Russia.
Today their main international organization is a
registered religion, the Souiz dukhovnykh kristiane — molokan (SDKM,
Russian: “Union
of
Spiritual
Christian Molokans” (USCM), Ñîþç äóõîâíûõ
õðèñòèàí—ìîëîêàí (ÑÄÊÌ), website: SDKM.ru), founded in Moscow
in 1990, and transferred about 1994 to Kochubeevskoe,
Stavropol' territory, Russian Federation. The ONLY Molokan congregation
in
the
U.S.
is
in
San
Francisco, and a semi-active congregation is
near Sheridan, north of Sacramento CA; and, both are
members of the SDKM.
- Pryguny is
Russian for the ROC heresy “leapers, jumpers” (from
Russian: prygat', ïðûãàòü
= “to jump”).
Some groups were called skakuny (ñêàêóíû, leapers) and by
other labels.
This new sect formed in the 1830s in south
Ukraine among Molokane
and other sectarians influenced by neighboring German
Protestants, particularly Heufers (Springers, Jumpers). The
heresy label of Pryguny
was not recorded before about 1856, though
similar beliefs existed for centuries and religious
jumping is practiced around the world by many faiths.
Since no centralized Prygun organization exists, some
congregations in Russia joined the SDKM. In North
America, at least 3
Prygun congregations remained active to the
1950s (San
Francisco, Mexico, and Arizona Selimski to
1947). In 1950 a new congregation of Prygun immigrants
from Iran in East Los Angeles were forced to transform
to Dukh-i-zhiznik.
In Los Angeles in 1932, 3 Prygun congregations combined to
form Big Church,
which was opposed for decades by Maksimisty-Dukh-i-zhizniki;
officially because the new united congregation had an
elected board of directors (komitet, êîìèòåò); unofficially,
because Big Church founders and members were not Maksimisty but of
various faiths they hated.
- Dukh-i-zhizniki is Russian for
“people who use the book Dukh i zhizn'.” Dukh-i-zhizniki
are much more diverse than the previous two faiths,
hence are a denominational
family. In the later 1800s, this cluster of
faiths began among Pryguny
and attracted membership from other sects and
nationalities beginning in Yerevan guberniya (now
Armenia). One leader/presbyter (presviter) of a
congregation of Pryguny
was Maksim Gavarilovich Rudomyotkin (MGR), who
became a mystical martyr in the 1870s. In the early
1900s, immigrants to America who revered MGR
formalized his “new ritual” by publishing in 1928 and
using the book Dukh
i zhizn' for worship as a 3rd Testament,
placed next to their Old Russian Bible on their altar
tables along with new song and prayer books. In the
1930s, these books were exported to coreligionists in
the Former Soviet Union and Turkey, where the book was
accepted by some Prygun
congregations, but did not unify them. This is
the only denominational
family in the world which exclusively uses these
ritual books. Most diaspora Dukh-i-zhiznik congregations and
organizations misuse Molokan in their title, and often
state their membership is limited to Pryguny or
Jumpers, while rejecting these precursor faiths, and
instructing their members to not attend services of
the above two faiths or any another other false faith.
Some ban attending other Dukh-i-zhiznik congregations for a
variety of reasons (below). Rules for acceptance of
guests and members vary widely by congregation, elders
within a congregation, and time.
Accurate
label : Dukh-i-zhizniki
In 2007, a new and unique label incorporating the book
name Dukh-i-zhizn'
was unanimously accepted by 50 congregations of all 3 of
these faiths in Stavropol'skii krai,
Russia, as a fair descriptor for use in a world directory
of Russian sectarians, in-progress. The Dukh-i-zhiznik label
appears to be the best fit for their lexicon.
(Send comments to <Adminstrator @ Molokane.org>)
When congregations that use the Dukh i zhizn' have a choice of the 3
labels, they chose Dukh
i zhizn' dispite the many differences and splits
between congregations of Dukh-i-zhizniki.
Dukh-i-zhizniki
are less united and more diverse in liturgy than Molokane and Pryguny, and fragment
more. Only Dukh-i-zhizniki
exclusively use the book Dukh i zhizn' and identify with it.
Previously Dukh-i-zhizniki
had no distinct label and often referred to other Dukh-i-zhizniki as
“our people” (Russian: nashi
: íàøè) or “believers [in the Dukh i zhizn']” (veruschy : âåðóøû)
when Molokane or
Pryguny were
nearby. When no Molokane
are nearby, Dukh-i-zhizniki
call themselves Molokane.
Other terms used by journalists include “extremist” and
“maximalist.” Some call themselves Maksimisty (Russian
for “followers of Maksim”, MGR), but not all Dukh-i-zhizniki are Maksimisty, and some
despise that term. A minority sometimes call themselves Davidisty, Novyi Izrail', or Zionisty. All
alternate labels were rejected in 2007 in Stavropol
province, Russia, in favor of their common identity with
the book Dukh i zhizn',
hence: Dukh-i-zhizniki.
In the US the term Dukh-i-zhizniki
is new,
strange and too exact for those who were indoctrinated to
hide and divide from the worldly non-believers. For these
and other reasons which they are afraid to reveal,
urbanized American Dukh-i-zhizniki
will probably continue to label their faith and
institutions as ethnic “Molokan” though they are not Molokane by faith.
Most will continue to say my “Molokan faith/religion,”
unless probed to define/describe/specify their actual
secret faith/religion. It may take a generation or more to
establish the new term.
These three religions have a common ethnic origin as
Russian sectarians, Spiritual Christians; iconobortsy (iconoclasts);
use the Russian Bible with Apocrypha;
and pray, sing, and read in Russian; but their holidays,
rituals, liturgy,
services, songs, and openness
vary significantly and separate them. Members within and
between congregations today may be relatives, neighbors,
friendly or unfriendly, intermarried, yet different in
behavior and belief, sometimes hostile and/or secretive.
If a marriage occurs between members of these
denominations, one usually must convert to the faith of
the congregation performing the wedding.
To argue ownership of the hijacked label, some Dukh-i-zhizniki boast
that they are the newest model of Molokane, like a
modern car compared to an antique. Using this analogy,
let's say the Molokane
are like the Ford Model T, but never modernize —
are constant, postoyannie.
Then auto competitor Chevrolet emerges as a separate
company (faith) with faster cars (like Pryguny) which uses
Buick parts (borrowing from other faiths) then produces
many newer models with automatic transmissions (Malibu,
Impala, Camaro, Corvette, Tahoe, Suburban, ... ) which are
like the many divided faiths among the religious family of
Dukh-i-zhiniki.
We recognize these as “cars” (like the general ethnic
group “Molokan”) but each model is different in parts,
shape, performance, and attracts different buyers
(members). In practice, they are as different as fruit
(apples, oranges, bananas, etc.)
Another analogy is the Jews, who in the U.S. can be
divided into 4 major clusters:
Those used to the fast-shout-singing, jumping, prophesies,
and mystical theatrics of Dukh-i-zhiniki, would be bored among
reserved Molokane limited
to the Bible and slow singing with no physical aerobics or
arguments. In contrast, those raised among Molokane are
intimidated by Dukh-i-zhinik
charismatic jumping, raising hands, shouting,
forced jumping, prophesy, verbal attacks, and singing
songs from other faiths, and non-Biblical songs with
Russian folk-melodies. Very few Molokane have never witnessed jumping,
or seen the book: Dukh
i zhizn'.
Molokan Label
Taken By Pryguny And
Others For Many Reasons
Upon arrival to America, most remained or returned to
urban life, especially after most
of the American land deals failed. By default, the
promised land for Spiritual Christians in American became
a kingdom in the city —
the “Mother colony” in the Flats
and Boyle Heights. The ethnic Molokan ghetto “Flat(s)” was
a cluster of intermingled Russian sectarian colonies with
no borders among the Russians or other ethnic groups and
nationalities — a
“melting
pot.” The city gave these immigrant peasants mild
climate, utilities (water, gas, electric, sewage), free
medical care, free child day care, free county burials,
free education, free English and citizenship classes, free
job training and placement, low-cost public
transportation, indoor plumbing, urban entertainment,
police and fire services, and much higher wages than rural
life; and a choice of Protestant faiths and city
temptations.
After the Hawaii colony failed in mid-1906, most Molokane resettled
in San Francisco and most Pryguny in Los Angeles and Mexico. The
minority of Pryguny in
San Francisco had no Maksimisty
to cause them embarrassment and kept their “Holy
Jumper” identity until they merged with the Molokane when their
building was sold. In Los Angeles, upon learning English,
most of the Americanized younger Pryguny preferred to say they were “Molokans,” while the
most aggressive Maksimisty
and associated charismatic zealots reported to the
press they were Pryguny
and Holy Jumpers, and they eventually changed the faith of
all congregations in Los Angeles to Dukh-i-zhiznik.
Dissenters left the faith, were pushed out, or were
marginalized.
Reasons for the Prygun
cover-up are extensive:
- Sensational press about radical American Pentecostals
also called Holy
Jumpers already in California before 1904
(disturbing peace, arranged spiritual marriages,
unwanted, demonstrations, …)
- Questioning their Christian identity in the midst of
the hotbed of Pentecostal
revival in Los Angeles (massive tent meetings,
active evangelism nearby and in media), and
differentiating from apostolic
dancers.
- Zealous Prygun prophets
(religious street maneuvers, marching to LA City Hall,
evacuating to mountains for the apocalypse,
disharmony; and failed resurrections, exorcisms, and
farm colonies).
- Public investigations and arrests of Pryguny (court
hearings for disturbing peace, funeral nudity,
juvenile gang arrests, work gang fights, selling
brides, unregistered marriages, not registering for
military, selling liquor without license, Jews
demanding deportation of these impostors in court
…).
- Murder-suicide by couple forbidden by parents to
marry. (1909,
Alexis Kottoff 23, and Anna Sossoeff 16)
- Russian immigrants not appearing nationalist (1903 Anarchist
Exclusion Act, Immigration
Act of 1917, 1917-1919 Committee
on Public Information, Immigration
Act of 1918, 1918 Slacker
Raids, 1919–1920 First
Red Scare, 1919–1920 Palmer
Raids, 1919 California
Red
Flag Law, 1920-1933 Prohibition,
1947–1991 Cold
War).
- They could be confused with Industrial
Workers of the World (IWW, Wobblies) founded in
1905, who adapted holy
jumper/roller songs and promotion methods as protest
songs.
- Contact with Spiritual Christian “Sons of Freedom”
(nude marches, burning, bombing) who petitioned to
resettle in the US (1902) and Hawaii (1906), and
return to Russia (1957) and were were mistaken to be
Doukhobors. The label “Sons of Freedom” appeared in
the 1940s.
- Contact with Community Doukhobors CCUB (Christian
Community of Universal Brotherhood) to join communes
in Hawaii 1906, California (Los Angeles 1908, Santa
Barbara 1910), Oregon (1923), Mexico (1923-1938), who
were mistaken to be terrorists, arsonists, “Sons of
Freedom.”
- Americans who ridiculed the Russian immigrants for
long beards (“bewhiskered”, “whisker street”), peasant
clothes, poverty, illiteracy, truancy, alcoholism,
youth gangs, and divided them into “ancients” and
“moderns”.
- Americanizing process. The Bethlehem Institutions
specialized in transforming foreigners into citizens,
of which Russian sectarians were a major project.
Neighboring Russian Jews who arrived earlier were
abandoning Judaism for Americanism, intermarrying,
becoming non-kosher. The Subbotniki
and Armenian
Pryguny
rapidly assimilated. Many girls were hired as
maids by assimilated wealthy Russians, many in/near
Pasadena.
- Confusion over the location of the prophetic
“South.”
- The majority of Maksimisty
who stayed near Mt.
Ararat claim those who left to America had
abandoned their prophetic promised land and
apocalypse. In Tavria,
Russian sectarians had contact with a faction of German
protestants following their prophesy to go south
to Mt. Zion (Jerusalem, Israel) for their 1836 Apocalypse.
When the Germans got as far south
as the Caucasus, they were not allowed visas to
continue to Palestine and declared Mt. Ararat to be
the location for the 2nd coming of Christ. M.G.
Rudomyotkin apparently adopted this German prophesy.
Maskimisty who
immigrated to Arizona, revived the prophesy to go “south.”
- Denial in 1945 by Turkey to allow migration back
home, to rejoin coreligionists who never left the
base of Mt. Ararat, the MGR prophetic promised land
in Kars
oblast, caused the diaspora to remain in North
America.
- During the Cold War, “south” became the southern
hemisphere where nuclear fallout was least likely
during the feared WWIII
apocalypse.
- Attempts since the 1950s to establish colonies
in South America (mainly Uruguay and Brazil) by
various groups from Southern California, perhaps
to live near Russian sectarians already there (New
Israelites, Mennonites, Starovery, Subbotniki).
- 1960s mass migration by diaspora to Australia,
but not to one location, resulting in a wider
geographic dispersion than in the US, and dividing
into about 10 congregations. Then many returned to
the U.S.
- Baja California, Mexico site rented by Staryi Romanovskii
sobranie (Blue Top), Montebello.
The simple, non-threatening and unique term “Molokan” was
ideal to distinguish the majority sectarians, Pryguny and Maksimisty, in Los
Angeles from Russian Bolshevik immigrants, Russian Jews,
American Pentecostal “holy jumpers,” and to hide their
actual faith. Only a few families were actually Molokane in Los
Angeles, too few to establish a congregation, and any
effort to form a Molokan
congregation was attacked by those promoting the Dukh-i-zhizn'. Upon
immigration some joined other Russian Protestant churches
in Los Angeles, like Presbyterian and Baptist. A neutral
sounding label was essential for both the religious
zealots (ancients), and Americanized (moderns) who quickly
learned English. The moderns could get education and good
jobs by appearing American. Ancients' oral history repeats
a prophesy given in Los Angeles at Demens' lumber yard,
instructing them to hide their secret faith from
non-believers and the government, hence most falsely
reported they were “milk-drinkers”, “Molokans”, pacifists,
Protestants, etc.; anything respectable except Pryguny, Holy
Jumpers, Maksimisty,
Zionisty, New
Israelites, etc.
Having arrived at the American promised land, they were
free to join any faith, which most did. Some legally
changed their Russian surnames or Americanized them —
Andrews (Androff), Brewer
(Pivovaroff), Chicken (Chickenoff), Conway (Konovaloff),
Durain (Urane), Eagles (Orloff), Jackson (?), Johnson
(Varonin), Kalp (Kalpakoff), Kazy (Kasimoff ?), Klubnik
(Klubnikin), Hall
(Hallivichoff, Golovachev),
Martin
(Fetesoff), Liege (Ledieav? ), Martin (Slivkoff), Melnick
(Melnikoff), Mosser (Moiseve), Niles (?), Pluss
(Plujnkoff), Preston (Popoff), Riley
(Galitzen), Ruddy
(Rudometkin), Saber (Tikhunov), Tolmage (?), Sharon
(Chernabieff), Thatch (?), Thomas (Tolmasoff), Young,
Yourin (Uren), Wolf (Volkoff), Wren (Uren), etc.). Many
Americanized youth did not like to kiss old people, long
services in Russian, hard benches, old-world traditions
and clothes, and/or be forced to jump; and homophobics
hated same sex kissing. Dukh-i-zhizniki
had little contact with, or opposition from, actual
Molokane organized
400 miles away in Northern California.
By the 1940s, most all U.S. descendants of Pryguny outside of
Northern California who remained in the faith transformed
into Dukh-i-zhizniki with
varying degrees of acceptance of their “new ritual” (novyi obryad). About
90% of Pryguny descendants
in the U.S. rejected the new Dukh-i-zhinik faith for American
faiths, many joining in groups. Many doubted that their Prygun or Dukh-i-zhiniki
ancestors were Christian. Some were ostracized for
questioning the elders about beliefs and rituals, a
process which continues more than 100 years after
immigration.
After 100 years, the “Molokan” name hijacking continues to
confuse the people it intended to protect from
deportation. Though a majority of Dukh-i-zhiniki appreciate
aspects of their Russian cultural heritage, most do not
know that real Molokane
accept the divorced and intermarried, that Molokane celebrate
the Birth of Christ (Christmas), Molokane do not demand peasant Russian
dress for worship or beards on men, and other facts
contradictory to their experience with Dukh-i-zhiniki. After
a century, most diaspora descendants live scattered in
cities, melted into America, and do not know their history
or relatives, nor care to know.
Zealous Dukh-i-zhiniki
continue to shun, insult and chase out
non-conformists of their rituals, effectively reducing
their membership, and either causing new
congregations to form or ostracizing members
forever. Some of the most zealous Dukh-i-zhizniki
believe Molokane are
their historic enemy, and dogmatically scorn Molokane, Pryguny, Subbotniki
and Americanized members as heretics, yet insist in print
to the government and to each other that they are
“Molokans.”
In Russia the enemy was the government and Church. After
freedom in America, new foes were substituted. Today the
worst enemy of a professed ethnic “Molokan” is another
ethnic “Molokan.” Diaspora Maksimist prophet and pundit,
Fred Vasilich Slivkoff, since the 1960s often quipped: “We
fled Russia to escape prosecutions of the Orthodox Church,
came to America and invented our own Orthodox Church!”
Since the 1990s, a Los Angeles elder singer and historian
James John Samarin quotes Pogo: “We
have met the enemy and he is us.”
Name Confusion
Molokane have
been confused with Quakers,
Dukhobortsy, Pryguny and a new
religion formalized in the U.S.—
Dukh-i-zhizniki —
for many reasons.
- During immigration to North America, most reporters
were confused about labeling Russian sectarians. At
first, “Russian Quakers” was used to announce the
arrival of each group from Russia — Mennonites
(1880s), Doukhobors (1899); and in 1904 Molokane, Pryguny, and Subbotniki. Sometimes
the sectarians were mislabeled — Pryguny called Dukhhobortsy,
Doukhobors called Molokans or Dunkers, Subbotniki called
Molokans, etc. The
most widespread and long-term error is calling “Sons
of Freedom,” by the group they left — Doukhobors.
- During
immigration, agents presented all Russian sectarians
in Los Angeles as Molokane,
because (a) the first group to arrive were
probably wealthy Molokane,
but followed by many poor Pryguny and Maksimisty;
and/or because Tolstoy's petition letters published
world-wide listed Molokane
not Pryguny;
(b) to distinguish them from American “Holy
Jumpers” in California; and, (c) to distinguish them
from a faction of Doukhobors who were also trying to
come to California from Canada. At least 10 land
agents are identified in the press.
- In January 1905 during immigration, The
Los Angeles Times explains using 3 labels — they
are known as the “Molokane“, ”They are sometimes
spoken of as ”Russian Quakers.“ Their proper
designation is the “Brotherhood of Spiritual
Christians” — and they eat kosher but are “not Jews.”
Afterward, newspapers mixed the labels and spellings
for Pryguny (Prigooni,
Priguni, Jumpers, Holy Jumpers, ...) and Molokane (Molicans,
Mollicans, Molocane, Molokani, Malakany, Molokans,
many variations ... ), often in the same article. In
Los Angeles, typically the term Pryguny was used
in the media and courts for Maksimisty, to distinguish the most
noisy and fanatical jumpers from the quieter more civil
Russian sectarians trying to assimilate.
- On 20 February 1906, The Honolulu Evening Bulletin
reported immigration planning concerns: “Don't
Want To Mix Molokans Of Different Religions At Kapaa.”
The Hawaiian papers never reported details about these
different religions or sects, nor did they care. A
week later, their host plantation owner Spalding
mistakenly said they were Hungarians.
In Hawaii, Pryguny
and Molokane held
separate prayer services, but 3 leaders were
mentioned.
- Conscientious objectors changed their identity each
generation:
- A 1917 May 28 notorized statement listed 259 “Russian Sectarians,
Spiritual Christians - Jumpers” in Los
Angeles who registered as required by law for the
draft.
- In 1941, the next generation in Los Angeles
changed their official label to “Russian Molokan
Spiritual Christian Jumpers” and “Molokan” or “Molochan” in
short.
- By 2000, Dukh-i-zhizniki
are only presented as “Molokan” on the The Molokan C.O.
and the Molokan Library Web Site, listed by
the Swarthmore
College Peace Collection, and in nearly all
news articles and obituaries.
- In 1917
while in jail in Arizona protesting draft
registration, John Kulikoff argued with a reporter
that they are “Holy-Jumpers” not “Molokans,” but the
press did not learn.
- In 1918, University of Southern California (USC)
graduate student Lillian
Sokoloff estimated by survey that 94% of Russian
sectarians in Los Angeles were Pryguny, a fact
ignored to this day.
- Though Pauline Young's 1932
book is clearly about Pryguny by title, she intentionally
changed the name of the religion, and censored and
omitted many events, probably to present them as
potentially good American citizens. Young uses the
term “Molokan” 100s of times, extensively quoting the
Dukh i zhizn',
occasionally stating they call themselves Pryguny. Even
though she cites Sokoloff (1918)
and Speek (1921),
the
classification terms in these reports are ignored.
Young failed to recognized that Pryguny changed
their faith to Dukh-i-zhiznik
during the course of her research. After her book was
published, Young testified to the US immigration
service about ethnic Molokans.
- The original documented American label «Áðàòñêié
Ñîþçú Äóõîâíûõú Ïðûãóíîâú» (Bratskii Suiz Dukhhovnykh Prygunov :
Brotherhood Union of Spiritual Jumpers) was
abandoned in favor of labels including the words
Õðèñòèàí (Khristian
: Christian) and Ìîëîêàí (Molokan). Many
variations appeared, all shortened to Molokan.
- During World War II, more than 740 “Russian
Molokans” enlisted in the military, though the
minority of about 172 (23%) were Molokane from
San Francisco. Compare to 76
recorded for Civilian Pubic Service, of which
only 1 was Molokan
from San Francisco. A few were CO absolutists
who chose jail. In the Swarthmore
College Peace Collection, only one Pete A. Wren
is shown as “Young Russian Chrisitan Spiritual Jumpers
[Molokan]”.
- In 1957, Nick Allen Klubnikin, failed to appealed
his draft status in US 9th District Court of Appeals
as “member of a sect called Molokan Spiritual Jumpers”
(227
F.2d 87 (1955), Case No. 14628)
- On September 25, 2001, the U.S. Selective Service
System recieved a letter from Los Angeles Dukh-i-zhizniki
asking to be recognized as “Russian Molokan Christian
Spiritual Jumpers” (page
13), which is the only single use of the term
Jumpers in “The Young Molokan and Military Service,”
compared to use of “Molokan” 41 times.
- In 1964, The
Los Angeles Times reported a 6-word description,
“Russian Molokan Christian Holy Spiritual Jumpers”
called “Molokans” moving to Australia. 2,000 prayed at
the dock.
- In 1998, Los Angeles Dukh-i-zhinik presbyter (presviter) George
Samarin, great-grandson of I.G.
Samarin, and brother of Dr.
William Samarin, questioned an article published
in Christian
History: ”... how was it possible for others to
be 'the first' to speak in tongues in Los Angeles in
1906?“ Though Samarin had a good library of Russian
sectarian history, he apparently believed his “Molokan
faith” was unique and delivered the Holy Spirit to
America.
- Sect
has a bad connotation in English. Most do not know the
historic Russian religious term sektanti, Russian
“sectarian,” simply means “an ethnic Russian, who is
not Orthodox”, simply a “heretic.”
- The short label Molokane
(milk-drinkers, ìîëîêàíå) is unique and respectable in
America, unlike Pryguny,
and is easier to pronounce.
- No descriptive term for Dukh-i-zhizniki existed, or was
wanted. Dukh-i-zhizniki
must hide their faith, though it was partially
described many times in the literature and in the
courts. Though some devout Maksimisty are not afraid to
self-identify among ethnic Molokans, they rarely use
or explain that term with outsiders (ninashi).
- Western scholars, not entirely familiar with Eastern
Orthodox religious history, extrapolate what they
understand about the Catholic-Protestant
split upon the Russian Orthodox-sectarian split, as Orthodox-Protestant,
ignoring difference between Russian sectarians and
European Protestants.
- Relatively little is published in English about
Russian sectarian Spiritual
Christians compared to Protestants, though they
are as about as diverse as western Protestantism.
Songs
Molokane, Pryguny, and Dukh-i-zhizniki can
easily be differentiated by their use of songs for
worship.
Molokane sing
and read only from the Russian Bible, occasionally reading
from an English Bible for non-Russian-speakers. Molokane do not use
a songbook or prayerbook during worship, nor are these
books on their altar table (ïðåñòîë : prestol ). Molokane may sing
borrowed songs after prayer service on occasions such as
weddings, funerals, and during meals.
Pryguny borrowed
songs from neighboring faiths and adapted folk songs for
spiritual jumping and spiritual whirling and dancing. Pryguny share many
traits with Methodist
Jumpers organized in Wales in the mid-1700s — borrowing pagan folk
songs, loud singing, raising hands, spiritual dancing and
jumping — similar
to some Pentecostals. Charismatic Christianity appears to
have been transmitted from Europe to Russian sectarians by
German
sectarians resettled in South Ukraine in the early
1800s and before that time by many routes. About 2005, the
first exclusively Prygun
songbook and prayer book were published in
Stavropol'skii krai, Russian Federation, with no Dukh-i zhinik songs.
Dukh-i-zhizniki
sing and read from many books: the Russian Bible with
Apocrypha, Dukh i
zhizn', and their own prayer book and song book.
They display much more jumping, prophesy, and
shout-singing than their predecessor Pryguny. Dukh-i-zhniki song
books evolved through several editions which collectively
show over 1200 songs and verses, retaining many songs from
the Molokane and
Pryguny, many
borrowed while in Russia from German Protestants, some
composed in America with Western folk melodies.
FAITH
|
SONGS
|
HOLIDAYS
|
COMMUNION |
Bible
|
Borrowed*
|
Dukh i zhizn'
|
Christ's |
God's |
Open
|
Closed
|
Molokan
|
X
|
-**
|
-
|
X
|
-
|
X
|
|
Prygun
|
X
|
X
|
-
|
X
|
X |
|
X
|
Dukh-i-zhinik
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
-
|
X
|
|
X
|
*
Most adapted from Russian folk songs and borrowed
from German Protestants.
** After services at weddings, funerals, child
dedication, holidays.
Holidays
Molokane, Pryguny, and Dukh-i-zhizniki can
most easily be differentiated by their religious holidays.
 |
 |
 Molokane
— 10-11
holidays, depending on congregation. The
original religion of Dukhhovnye khristiane-molokane (Russian
for: Spiritual
Christian Molokans, Äóõîâíûå
õðèñòèàíå-ìîëîêàíå) as organized by Simeon
Uklein (many believe the religion preceded him), which
separated from Ikonoborsty
(image-wrestlers, iconoclasts) in the 1760s
(some relabeled Doukhobors,
“spirit-wrestlers”, in 1785).
Molokane were so named for their
heresy of drinking milk during the Great
Fast (Lent) and splitting
from the Orthodox, and other origins exist in the oral
history [REFERENCE].
Molokane in Kars Oblast (now
Turkey) fasted and held services for three days before
each holiday — Thursday, Friday, Saturday — making
each holiday a four-day event, with a feast on Sunday.
The practce was continued by those who returned to
Russia in the 1920s, and continued today. The scope of
this three-day holiday fast among all Molokane in all
reagions is not yet known.
The main international Molokan organization
is the Souiz
dukhovnykh kristiane—molokan (Russian
for “Union
of Spiritual Christian Molokans” (USCM), Ñîþç äóõîâíûõ
õðèñòèàí—ìîëîêàí (ÑÄÊÌ), website: SDKM.ru), founded in Moscow
in 1990, and transferred about 1994 to Kochubeevskoe,
Stavropol' territory (krai),
Russian Federation, after a plea to relocate to the
Northern Caucasus to serve the thousands of refugees
from the Caucasus. Today many still object to the
transfer because in Russia a “Center” must be in
Moscow. In 2007, the SDKM had about 45 dues-paying
member congregations in the Russian Federation, and
one in San Francisco, California — First Russian
Christian Molokan Church : Molokanskii molitvanyi dom (Russian:
Molokan prayer house/hall, Ìîëîêàícêèé
ìîëèòâàíûé äîì). People of all faiths are
welcome to attend.
American Molokane celebrate
8 holidays.
Molokane welcome
visitors, photography, and conversion; have open
communion; and celebrated 200
years of religious freedom in 2005. Molokane differ
somewhat between congregations but agree they are all
one unified religion, and rarely split over liturgy.
One “Old- Constant” congregation (Russian: staro-postoyannie,
ñòàðîïîñòîÿííèå) still uses the Old
Slavonic Bible and language for reading and
singing; and claims the others have fallen away from
their original Russian religious language. Molokane are
somewhat critical, yet tolerant of Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki
for adapting non-Biblical versed songs during their
services borrowed from other faiths. Molokane have
little contact with the zealous and contradictory
prophesies of the Dukh-i-zhizniki who use
the label Molokan
while avoiding, often condemning, original Molokane. About 224
congregations counted world-wide since 1950.
- Sukhie Baptisty
— Russian for “Dry Baptists,” Ñóõèå Áàïòèñòû. Molokane who
somewhat merged with the All-Russian Union of
Evangelical Christians (ARUEC), organized by Ivan
Prokhanov, which split from the Russian
Baptist Union, but refused water baptism, preferring
their traditional baptism by the Holy Spirit. It is
estimated that about half of the early ARUEC members
were of Molokan descent, like Prokhanov's parents.
Many were called “dry-Baptists” by relatives and
friends. At
least one congregation counted in 2007, Tblisi,
Republic of Georgia, but more exist.
- Detei Khrista
— Russian for “Children of Christ”, Äåòåé
Õðèñòà; also called Mokrye Molokane (Russian for “Wet
Molokans”, Ìîêðûå
Ìîëîêàíå.) A congregation which split from the
Mikhailovsk (Shpakovskii) congregation, Stavropol'
territory, Russian Federation, in the early 2000s.
Their service is nearly identical to Molokan, but
added water Baptism for any age, hence the nickname
“wet Molokans” by relatives and friends. The
founding presviter
Ivan.V. Schetinkin, is brother of the SDKM
senior presviter,
Timofei Vasilich. One congregation counted in 2007, Mikhailovsk
(Shpakovskii region), Stavropol territory, Russian
Federation (RF).
- Molokan-Adventisty — Molokane converted
by traveling German Adventist missionaries in 1906,
who resided in and near the village of Russkie-Borisy
village, now Azerbaijan. After conversion many
migrated to Yaroslavskaya
village Krasnodarskii krai during Collectivization,
and after 2000 to the US. Beginning in 2001, over
200 who eventually migrated to the Seattle WA area
founded the Öåíòð
äóõîâíîãî ïðîñâåùåíèÿ (Russian Center for
Spiritual Enrichment of SDA) in Bellevue WA.
Services are in Russian. Annual
youth festivals have been held since 2008
hosting Russian-speaking youth of all faiths. 4 meeting sites,
counted in 2011 — 3 for regular services near
Seattle, Washinton USA, plus a site for Torah
service for Russian Jews and all faiths.
 Pryguny,
Dukhovnye
— 10
holidays. Pryguny is Russian for “Jumpers” or
“Leapers.” The full Russian label is dukhovnye
kristiane-pryguny, äóõîâíûå
õðèñòèàíå-ïðûãóíû, Spiritual Christian Jumpers.
Today in Russia most call those in the same
congregation who do not jump dukhovnye (Russian for Spirituals, äóõîâíûå), and
those who jump pryguny.
In this taxonomy, the term Pryguny is used to categorically
distinguish these congregations from Molokane and Dukh-i-zhizniki.
Historically, other descriptive terms were used, translated
as Bouncers, Dancers, Prancers, Noisy-nose-breathers,
Molokan-Whips, etc.
Pryguny are a hybrid sect with
origins and membership from Molokane, German Anabaptists,
subbotniki (Sabbatarians
: ñóááîòíèêè), Russian Orthodox, and Lyudi bozhii
(People of God : Ëþäè Áîæèé). The 1874
hand-drawn calendar (right) shows the Prygun holidays.
Before the label “prygun,” these
sectarians belittled original Molokane by
saying we are dukhovnye
and they are postoiannie
(Russian : ïîñòîÿííèå, constant, steadfast,
unchanged, original). This nickname continues, mostly
used by Dukh-i-zhizniki
to defend their hijacking the Molokan label.
Molokane-Subbotniki, who refused to worship
on Sunday, were labeled “Saturday Molokans” in the Russian Empire
Census of 1897, while the original believers
remained “Sunday Molokans” (voskerseniki). Some Sunday Molokans,
who in 1817 begin migrating to Tavria
guberniia (now South Ukraine), adapted features
from other Russian Spiritual Chirstian sects [link in-progress]
and from German
Protestants — a focus on the Apocalypse,
prophesy, songs and mind altering spiritual acts like
fasting (postnichestvo),
ecstatic dances (radeniia),
jumping, skipping, walking in the spirit / in joy (khozhdenie v Dukhe),
and actions (deistviia,
äåéñòâèÿ). The label pryguny first appeared in Russian
print about 1854 (according to Dr. Breyfogle),
though earlier reports described jumping, dancing,
leaping, and rapid breathing. Many Saturday Molokane, mostly
Subbotniki,
in the Former
Soviet
Union merged with Adventists, and no longer use
the label Molokan,
yet associate with Molokan
and Prygun friends
and relatives. The 1897 Russian census counted Pryguny separate
from Molokane
in the Transcaucasus. While in jail, Maksim G.
Rudomyokin (Rudometkin) was registered as prygun, separate
from molokan prisoners.
 Dukhovnye divide
their holidays into “God's holidays” and “Christ's
holidays” (Russian: Prazdniki
Gospodni i Khristovy, Ïðàçäíèêè Ãîñïîäíè è
Õðèñòîâû). Christ's holidays were retained from their
Molokan origin,
and God's holidays were added by the Subbotniki who
used the Old Testament. The 2000-2009 calendar (right)
is from the Inozemstvo Dukhovnye congregation, Stavropol
territory, RF; and is followed by all Dukhovnye congregations.
Several Dukhovnye congregations
migrated
to
America
but
by
the
1950s
were
forced,
along
with
Molokane and
the United Molokan Christian Association (UMCA, a
Sunday school and youth social center), to either join
the Dukh-i-zhiniki,
join the 2 Molokan
congregations (San Francisco, or Sheridan), or
leave to join another faiths. By 2007, as many as 90%
appeared to have left the Prygun faith in the diaspora. In
the Former Soviet Union, several Dukhovnye congregations
are members of the USCM and have good relations with Molokane. Most
welcome visitors, photography, conversion, and mostly
have closed
communion.
About 30 Pryguny congregations
counted world-wide since 1950.
- Subbotniki-Molokane
— See Subbotniki.net
for extensive history and maps. Dukhovnye Khristiane
(Spiritual Christians) who chose Saturday for their sabbath,
and Subbotniki who
joined
Molokane Many
were
counted
as
“Saturday
Molokans”
in
the Russian
Empire Census of 1897. One large group emerged
about 1920 in Russki Borisi village, Azerbaijan, led
by presviter Rybkin.
His congregation split, half remaining Dukhovnye, the
other half Subbotnik,
performing identical services on different days, but
joining for holidays. Some descendants of this Subbotnik congregation
converted to Adventist upon resettlement in Russia and
meets in the One
congregation, Kapelnitsa suburb of Inozemtsvo,
Stavropol province, RF.
- Young
Russian Christian Association (YRCA), “Jack
Greeners” — Assimilated American
descendants of Pryguny
and a few Molokane
who attended events held at a church pastored
by Brethren minister Jack Green. Green sponsored a
Young Russian Christian Association (YRCA) which was
perceived by Dukh-i-zhiniki
in Los Angeles to compete with their “Young Church” (molodoi sobranie),
nicknamed Chulok
sobranie.
Green offered English-language Christian education, a
clubhouse, sports, counseling, guidance, and
encouraged Russian youth to keep the faith of their
ancestors, including those at risk of delinquency, and
jailed and abandoned by their Dukh-i-zhinik
parents. In the 1940s, many reported to the draft
board separate from the Molokans, as members of YRCA.
Many Prygun youth
preferred the YRCA because they did not like to kiss
old people, endure long services in Russian, and/or be
coerced to jump. In the 1960s, many “Jack Greeners” as
married-in adults, joined and enhanced the LA-UMCA
with new programs, clubs, a wood-working shop, a
newsletter, and formed the Molokan Youth
Parent-Teachers Association (MYPTA). In the 1970s Dukh-i-zhiniki
battled for political control of the UMCA, pushing out
“Jack Greeners.” In 1980s many formed and joined a new
businessmen social organization, The Heritage Club.
Many of the Greeners maintain membership in Dukh-i-zhinik
congregations, but attend when mandatory, like a
family funeral or kitchen work. One congregation dissolved in
1960s, East Los Angeles, California USA.
- Re-Formed
— 6 holidays. Former Dukh-i-zhiniki who removed the book
Dukh i Zhizn'
from their altar table in the 1970s, translated
services and songs into English (Russian is often
used, not banned), yet maintain Dukh-i-zhizniki holidays
plus Rozhestvo (Birth
of Christ, Christmas). The existence of this
congregation divided American Dukh-i-zhiniki
into praises and scorners. Website ChristianMolokanUpdate.com
registered May 25, 2010. Most welcome visitors,
photography, conversion, and are the first
congregation of Pryguny
to host a web site. One congregation counted in 2007,
Woodburn, Oregon, USA.
- Dukh-i-zhizniki
— 5-6 holidays.
Dukh-i-zhizniki
is Russian for “people who use the book Dukh i zhizn'.”
They were Pryguny and
others who transformed to a new faith based on the
book Dukh i zhizn'
(Russian for Spirit
and Life : Book
of the Sun, Dukh i zhizn' - Kniga solntse, Äóõ è æèçíü :
Êíèãà
ñîëíöå). Dukh-i-zhizniki
evolved from a few Prygun congregations in and near
Nikitino (now Fioletovo),
Erivan
Governorate after 1860, among followers of the Prygun presviter Maksim
G. Rudomyotkin who instructed his followers to
abandon their original Molokan holidays (Christ's
holidays) adapted from Orthodoxy, whom some hate, to
keep only the Old Testament holidays (God's holidays)
adapted from Subbotniki,
and to
shun Molokane
and Subbotniki — forming a new sect.
Dukh-i-zhizniki solidified after
1928 when Prygun congregations
in
the U.S. allowed the book Dukh i zhizn' to be placed on
their their altar tables (prestol), as a Third Testament to
the Bible, and used it for worship and rituals. The
editors of the 1928 edition signed as Bratskii Soiuz Dukhovykh
Prygunov (Russian for: United Botherhood of
Spiritual Jumpers, Áðàòñié Ñîþçú Äóõîâíûõú Ïðûãóíîâú),
but in the introductory pages the term Molokan is used.
Some called themselves
“Zionists” and/or “New Israel”, though they did not
share communion with New
Israel nor did they migrate to Palestine as did
many Subbotniki.
Molokane and
Pryguny commonly
call them Maksimisty
(Russian for: “followers of Maksim G.
Rudomyotkin”, maksimisty,
ìàêñèìèñòû), but not all Dukh-i-zhizniki are Maksimisty.
Rudomyotkin was registered in a Suzdal
monastery as a prygun, where his death was
documented by Nikolai
Ilyin, yet disputed by some followers who
believe he rose to heaven like Jesus Christ.
The precursors to the Dukh-i-zhiznik
faith was transported to Los Angeles beginning in
1904, and began to solidify in 1915 when a few Maksimisty who
moved to the state of Arizona published in Los Angeles
some of Rudomyotkin's notes in Russian in the Book of the Morning Star,
then his Prayerbook
(Russian: Molitvennik,
Ìîëèòâåííèêú), and a songbook. They ignored the prayer
books used by Molokane.
In the Former Soviet Union the Dukh-i-zhiznik
books are often collectively called obryadniki (îáðÿäíèêè
: ritual, ceremony books).
 |
 |
 |
1928 Russian
|
1976 English
|
1983 English
|
The first version of the Dukh i zhizn' was
published in 1928 in Los Angeles, adding sections by 3
more prophets, a short history, and deleting ~60 pages
of controversial text. About 66% of the pages are
credited to Rudomyotkin, with debate. The Dukh i zhizn' was
placed “by the Holy Spirit” by Maksimist prophets,
not by a democratic vote of members, on all Prygun altar
tables in the U.S.,
except the Selimsky congregation in Arizona, and Holy
Jumpers in San Francisco. The book was allowed in the
Mexico prayer house as a reference, not on the table.
The two Molokan congregations
in America (San Freancisco and Sheridan) refused the
book.
Before a failed migration
back to the base of Mount Ararat in 1939,
diaspora elders declared no need to to translate their
books into English.
To continue the Dukh-i-zhiznik
faith in America, translations were needed. In 1944
John K. Berekoff in Los Angeles began to publish
selections in several editions. In 1965-66, John
Volkoff, a graduate student in slavic language at UC
Berekely, translated the entire book himself with
occasional the help from elder Russian Jews. In the
summer of 1966, after Wednesday Night Church, Volkoff,
driven by Andrei A. Shubin, arrived at the LA-UMCA
after everyone left but 3 men and me, Andrei
Conovaloff. Volkoff hand-delivered a carbon copy of a
sample first section to UMCA president Paul Lukianov,
vice-president Mike Planin, and former president Alex
Tolmas, with instructions to publish the book and
donate all prceeds to the UMCA general fund. He said
they could pass it around to anyone for proofreading.
That summer I was given a sample copy to take to
Arizona elders, which I delivered to Alex L.
Conovlaoff. All groups apparently refused and/or were
afraid to publish it. The project stagnated for more
than 10 years.
Independently in 1976, the
first complete translation was published in Australia
by James M. Pivovaroff with an untitiled red cover and
11 gold stars. The postponed 1966 Volkoff tanslation
was edited and published in 1983 by Daniel H. Shubin
in Los Angeles. Only the Russian versions are used for
singing, and occationally the English version is read
from depending on the congregation. Some claim the Dukh i zhizn' can
only be understood in Russian by a few chosen with the
gift of the Holy Spirit.
Diaspora Dukh-i-zhizniki apparently
outwardly claimed the religious label Molokan for many
reasons, including: (a) to avoid being confused with
indigenous American Petecostal “Holy Jumpers” already
reported in the press when they immigrated ; (b) to
camouflage their embarrasing religion because Pryguny
were investigated, reported, and some arrested for
illegal activity (bride selling, not registering
marriages, disturbing the peace with loud estatic
jumping to exhaustion, unusually long funerals,
declaring the end of the world has arrived and fleeing
to the mountains, semi-nude children in public,
refusing to allow children to attend school,
exorcisms, failed resurrections, ...); (c) to obey a
prophesy by _____ in 19__ in reaction to the scandals
to hide their faith from the world, non-believers and
the government; (d) a belief that the Molokan faith
perished in Russia and in San Francisco, hence the
label was free for use without opposition; (e) a
failed attempt to follow their prophesy back to the
base of Mount Ararat in 1939; and (f) to appease Molokan and Prygun families
to join their “true” faith by using a neutral label.
In the 1910s, an effort to unify all denominations in
the U.S. created a new five-word label: “Russian
Molokan Spiritual Christian Jumpers” for their first
cemetery, which was shortened to “Molokan”, a complete
camouflage.
The largest cemetery in the
US operated by
Dukh-i-zhiniki (Commerce
CA) posts the label “Spiritual Jumper” only in
Russian, not in English. (See image
above.) The signs on the gate and street display
“Russian Molokan Christian,” as does an internal sign in
Russian and English, but the Russian is not completely
translated, hiding the embarrasing Pryguny identity
from Americans and those who cannot read Russian. The
original historic label “Spiritual Christian” is
absent in English.
A wide spectrum of diverse Dukh-i-zhiniki
exist around the world. The extent of use and
acceptance of the Dukh
i zhizn' significantly divides
congregations internally and between congregations,
causing congregations to split, often after a dominate elder
dies. All efforts to unify Russian sectarians in the
Americas into apocalyptic agricultural colonies
failed. In 1933, the effort to unify all in Los
Angeles into the “Big Church” failed mainly due to
objections by a few zealous Maksimisty against komitet (Russian
for “the committee”), whose congregations remained
separatist. In the 1950s, immigrant Pryguny who
arrived in Los Angeles from Iran (Persia) were
rejected by local Dukh-i-zhizniki
until they used the Dukh i zhizn' and abandoned half of
their holidays. American Dukh-i-zhiniki who attended Persian
Prygyn services
were severly reprimanded for attending a heresy faith.
Dukh-i-zhiniki relatives
of founders of the “Re-Formed” congregation in Orgeon
(above) were harassed.
Among Dukh-i-zhizniki
around the world, divisions occur over emphasis of the
Dukh i zhizn'
authors (Davidisty
versus Maksimisty),
eating communal (obschaya
pisha) or with individual dishes, use of
technology (telephone, electric appliances),
nationality (Russian, Cossack, Armenian, Mordva,
Chuvash, ... ), technology use (telephone; display yekron : TV,
computer), joining the collective farm (kolkhoz) or not,
many ritual variations (prayers, songs, holidays,
...), Russian fluency, use of Russian Slavonic,
appearance (dress [white or colored, belt knot left or
right], hair style [parted like open Bible, length],
beard style and size, home and prayer house decor and
location, ...), use of the Maksimist identity greeting (
arafanal ), marriage partner (spiritual
blood-line or not), college education or not,
occupation (blue-collar
preferred), Russian language (fluency and dialect),
geography (village of ancestors), associations
(education, affiliations, attending other churches,
...), beliefs about M.G. Rudomyotkin (“King of the
Spirits”, never died, Saint in prayer and song), etc.
Some claim to be New
Israel but are not affiliated with other
branches.
Because most relatives
of diaspora Dukh-i-zhizniki
joined other faiths, many congregants have adapted
characteristics and jargon of indigenous western
Protestant faiths to appeal to their youth, and
downplay the significance of the Dukh i zhizn',
though it remains on their altar tables. Phrases like
“Praise the Lord,” and “Thank You Jesus,” previously
banned in English, are now accepted. Though the
Russian version is preferred in some congregations,
hostile verbal attacks are rarer.
Many of those who remain in
the faith to maintain family and ethnic-cultural bonds
reluctantly agree to use the Dukh i zhizn' to avoid being shuned
by the most zealous. Many in the U.S. maintain 2
faiths by paying dues to their family congregation,
but mostly attend another Christian-faith church for
English services, socials, and education. Many 2nd
generation diapora parents who grew up as Dukh-i-zhizniki act
as a buffer, allowing their relatives to leave the
faith while the parents attend services to represent
their family. Many parents prefer that their kids
marry civil American Christians rather than abusive
narrow-minded Russians.
In the 1930s-1940s, the
newly organized Dukh-i-zhiznik
faith in the U.S. was transported back to the Soviet
Union by sending ritual books (Dukh i zhizn',
with prayer and song books) to Armenia and Kars,
Turkey, where some Pryguny
adopted the books and transformed their faith
to conform with instructions from America. Dukh-i-zhizniki
now in the the North
Caucasus arrived in two waves — in 1962 from Turkey
during a massive resettlement, and 1987-1990s from Armenia
during perestroika.
They are fractionated and sometimes claim to be the
“true” Molokane but
avoid and scorn the orgnaized Molokane, SDKM.
The most zealous congregations in the Former Soviet
Union (FSU) reject all diaspora Dukh-i-zhizniki
for abandoning their motherland, communal traditions,
living in cities, using ekron TV and computers; while many
Dukh-i-zhizniki
in the diaspora reject those in the FSU for not
obeying their profesy to come to America and enlisting
in the Soviet military.
Since perestoika, about
50 Dukh-i-zhiznik
families were imported from Armenia, half to the U.S.
and half to Australia, primarily to enhance the local
congregations with Russian-speaking co-religionists.
The immigrants found that their songs, rituals and a
new holiday were not fully accepted. Those in
Australia formed their own congregation. Those in the
U.S. clustered among a few congregations which showed
the most acceptance and need for Russian-speakers.
Dukh-i-zhizniki rarely affiliate
with Molokane or
Pryguny.
Though 100s of Dukh-i-zhizniki
work in Moscow, they do not hold prayer
meetings and never attend Molokan services, even when
personally invited by Molokane. When intermarriage occurs
between these 3 denominations the couple must decide
which to join, if any. Occasionally a Molokan marries
a Dukh-i-zhiznik
and joins the mate's congregation, only after
conversion and scrutiny. No Dukh-i-zhiznik congregation joined
the SDKM
by 2007, or attended the 200th
Anniversary in 2005, though some attended the
diaspora 150th Anniversary held in San Francisco in
1955, and many attended the 100th Anniversary held in
1905 in Vorontsovka, Tiflis governate (1844
Vorontsovka, 1935 Kalinino / Kalinin, 1992 Tashir,
Armenia).
Confusing to outsiders
and to themselves, most Dukh-i-zhizniki today self-claim to
be “true” Molokans by
faith. Few welcome visitors, photography, or
conversion; and most have closed
communion. About
86 Dukh-i-zhiznik
congregations counted world-wide since 1950.
- First Armenian
Pentecostal Church — Armenians
who joined the Pryguny
in Kars Oblast, migrated with them to California,
use the book Dukh
i zhizn',
lived and intermarried in the Los Angeles “Flats”
ghetto, are buried in the Dukh-i-zhinik cemeteries, but now
use the label Pentecostal.
Now most are unknown or shunned by all Dukh-i-zhnik congregations
in California. Ironically, the Demos
Shakarian clan, which split to found the The Full Gospel
Business Men's Fellowship International, is
somewhat honored because they credited the Prygun prophet
Klubnikin
in their history, yet are rejected for joining the
“666” false faiths. Most welcome visitors,
photography, and conversion. One congregation counted in 2007,
La Habra Heights, California, USA.
Discontinued Labels
Though many labels have been used for the varieties of
Rusian sectarians, most are now extinct or the labels no
longer commonly used, for example: Knowers-Seers, True
Spiritual Christians, Zionists, Akinfevs, Water Molokans,
Sunday Molokans, Don group, Krylovs, Molokan-Sabbatarians
(Molokan-Subbotniki), Saturday Molokans, Communalists,
Noisy-nose-breathers, Bouncers, Molokan-Fasters, Clean,
Shtundo-Molokans, Evangelicals, Molokan- Presbyterians,
New Molokans, Evangelical Christians, Springers (German
translation of Pryguny) Shtundo-Evangelicals, New Israel,
Tolstoyan, Nemolaky (non-prayers, non-worshipers)... See Two
Sectarian Classification Systems for Spiritual Christian
Molokane, Pryguny, and others,
and Hijacking the Doukhobors and Molokans. English
version In-Progress
Ðåëèãèîçíûå
òå÷åíèÿ
è
ñåêòû.
Ñïðàâî÷íèê
References
- Hastings, James, et.al. “Men
of God,” Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics,
Vol. 8., 1916, page 546.
- ortho + doxa =
right-correct-true-straight-proper +
teaching-worship-doctrine-thinking-faith-belief-opinion-glory
(Question
and Answer : “Orthodox” Revisited - Part 2, The
Orthodox Presbyterian Church.)
The chart below
shows a simple holiday taxonomy
of all congregations of Spiritual Christian Molokans and
Jumpers in the world in 2008.
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